The Value of the Architect: Eight Reasons for Employing One

1. As in matters of health, one needs a Doctor and in legal matters one needs a Lawyer, so in the matter of a building with its infinite variety of modern facilities for comfort and health, and its claim for beauty, one needs the Architect.
2. The Architect has expert knowledge of building materials and construction methods, and how best to plan for the installation of plumbing, heating lighting, and insulation.
3. A building is a better investment if well planned and attractive in appearance. The trained Architect can make it so.
4. Both Owner and Builder depend on competitive bidding for fair prices. Fair competitive bidding depends on complete drawings and specifications drawn by an Architect.
5. The Owner needs the supervision of an adviser, unbiased by commercial considerations, to pass on the quality of the materials and workmanship going into his building.
6. The Owner’s interests are best served by the Architect, who has devoted years to special training for his work and, therefore, must be more intelligently qualified than any one whose principal concern is with other interests and obligations.
7. From start to finish of a building operation the Architect is the Owner’s professional adviser and representative – in drawing contracts, complying with building codes and lien laws, certifying building changes, and seeing throughout that the Owner gets what he pays for.
8. Architectural services are a small fraction of the total cost of a building. A good Architect often saves the Owner a sum much larger than his fee.

The Handbook of Architectural Practice

Why Energy Matters

By John Straube
Created: 2009/01/30

The environmental crisis, and hence green building design, revolve around a wide range of issues: habitat destruction, stormwater run-off, air pollution, climate change, and resource use. However, the on-going consumption of energy to operate, condition, and light a building, as well as the energy embodied in on-going maintenance is the largest single source of environmental damage and resource consumption due to buildings. Energy security and carbon emissions have signaled an even stronger focus on energy in green buildings, particularly as the energy consumption growth rate of countries such as China, Russia, India and Brazil increase.

Photograph 1: Energy Matters—Building owners and designers will be increasingly concerned with energy use, energy efficiency, the choice of energy source, the distance of that source from their building, and the global impact of their building and operations.

Reducing the operational energy use and increasing durability should be the prime concerns of architects who wish to design and build “green” buildings. I have reached this conclusion after spending years looking at actual building energy consumption, reviewing countless computer simulations, and being involved in numerous green building charrettes. It has even been suggested (Lstiburek, 2008) that 80% of a green architect's concern should be directed towards reducing energy consumption during operation.

Figure 1: US Building Energy Use (from architecture2030.org)

Scientific life-cycle energy analyses have repeatedly found that the energy used in the operation and maintenance of buildings dwarf the so-called “embodied” energy of the materials. Cole and Kernan (1996) and Reepe and Blanchard (1998) for example found that the energy of operation was between 83 to 94% of the 50-year life cycle energy use  (Figure 2).

 

Figure 2: Embodied energy is swamped by operational energy in almost all building types (based on Cole & Kernan, Bldg & Environ, 1996)

Despite the massive amount of evidence pointing to the importance of energy consumption to green design, designers and even rating programs like LEED still seem fixated on material choices, not energy reduction. Perhaps the lack of attention to this critical issue is a result of the fact that architects are trained in the arrangement of spaces, massing, cultural influences, and the selection of finishes. Designing buildings that consume little operational energy is not a normal skillset: it requires much more quantitative understanding of heat transfer and radiation physics, weather and sun, and mechanical equipment operational details than architects normally possess. Nevertheless, it is the architect that makes most of the significant choices that impact energy consumption.
The trend in the last decades has not been encouraging. According to the Department of Energy’s Commercial 2003 Building Energy Consumption Survey, the energy consumption is not less than buildings built before 2003 (Figure 3). A New Buildings Institute study has shown that LEED buildings use essentially the same amount of energy. The real savings from improved window technology, more efficient equipment, and better design tools have disguised the fact that we are wasting more energy because of over-ventilated, over-glazed, and under-insulated buildings.

Figure 3: Actual Measured Energy Consumption versus Year Constructed for US Commercial Buildings (data from DOE Energy Information Agency CBECS 2003 Survey)

If a building’s orientation, massing, window area/shading, insulation arrangement, and airtightness are not properly optimized, no amount of mechanical engineering, heat pumps, chilled slabs, natural ventilation or green materials can make the building a “low-energy” building. And if it is not a low-energy building, it is not a green building.

Complex underfloor air systems, double-facades, green roofs, and heat pumps are all technology with potential, but will not save energy if the architect’s design (let alone the mechanical engineer’s) is not appropriate. In many cases these technologies are added to a poor building, and the result is average energy consumption despite the use of good, or even exceptional, mechanical design and equipment. Efficient and high-tech equipment and controls can moderate— but not make up for—bad building design.

The solution to this problem begins with awareness of the importance of operational energy consumption to environmental damage, resource depletion, habitat destruction, and hence, to green buildings. Solutions will take many forms, but all will involve prediction of energy consumption, and confirmation that the designed low-energy building is actually built and operated as one. Only then do we have proof it is a green building. The Architecture 2030¹  challenge is based entirely on this premise. The choice of a minimum 50% reduction in energy use per building floor area has the major advantages that it is economically achievable today, with today’s technology, skills and materials; is significant enough to make a real difference; and does not require any great precision (that is, one can be in error by 5% in design, operation, or measurement and the building remains a great success).

Energy consumption should be measured in terms of environmental damage, such as carbon emissions, resource depletion, or habitat destruction. None of these impacts are easily measured. However, every month a small army of people (meter readers) are deployed around the country to measure the energy used in buildings, and this energy use data is remarkably precise, condensed into easy-to-read formats, and mailed to building owners. Therefore, the most readily available and scientifically rigorous measure of energy is in units of Btu, megajoules, or kilowatt hours as provided in energy bills. One disadvantage to this approach is that all energy is not equal when it comes to environmental impact. In many places in North America, electrical energy delivered by the grid is more polluting, from a greenhouse gas perspective, than natural gas. However, there are simple correction factors available. Measuring energy in the form of dollars presumes that environmental damage is related to dollars. It is not, and this format should be avoided.
Meeting the challenge of delivering low-energy buildings will, however, require a different approach to design, the development of new skills, and a focus on new priorities. Checklists and rating programs (like LEED, BuildGreen, and GreenGlobes) are neither sufficient nor necessary, but could be complementary to the quantifiable end goal of low energy consumption.
Issues of recycled content, low embodied energy, and natural ventilation are not unimportant. However, if these concerns distract so much that a low-energy building does not result, then the environment is risked. LEED could take a true leadership role if Energy and Atmosphere credits were weighted far more heavily, or if the prerequisite reduction in energy intensity (based on real buildings) were raised to 30 or 50%.
The operational energy use of buildings is their biggest environmental impact. Green buildings, which must be low-energy buildings, need to be designed to respond to this reality.

Thermal Control in Buildings

This article gets a little technical but the overall basic concepts are important to understand. Traditionally built homes leak warm/cold air at large rates, causing increased energy cost for your home. Simple solutions like the type of insulation or the method of insulation help to mitigate those leaks and therefore saving you money. The following article from buildingscience.ccm will help to understand the basics. We at Lythgoe Design Group specialize in green and energy efficient design, therefore can help you with any new project, retrofit, or addition to increase energy efficiency and save you money. -LDG

by John Straube

Background

Heat flow can be a transient or a steady process.  In the transient state, temperature and/or heat flow vary with time.  Steady-state heat flow occurs when the temperature and heat flow reach a stable equilibrium condition that does not vary with time. Depending on the particular problem, the assumption of steady-state conditions may provide sufficiently accurate predictions of actual heat flow and temperature conditions. However, for some problems the assumption of steady flow can result in significant errors.
Heat flow can occur in one, two, or three dimensions.  In almost all real situations, heat flow occurs in three dimensions but, from a practical point of view, it is often acceptable to simplify considerations to only one-dimensional, or series, heat flow.
Heat transfer occurs by three primary mechanisms, acting alone or in some combination:

• conduction,
• convection, and
• radiation.

Changes in moisture state, although not strictly an energy transfer mechanism, must also be considered since these state changes absorb and release heat energy, i.e., latent heat.

 

Figure 1: Conduction of heat through a solid.

Conduction is the flow of heat through a material by direct molecular contact.  This contact occurs within a material or through two materials in contact.  It is the most important heat transport mode for solids; it is sometimes important for liquids, and it is occasionally important for gases.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement or flow of molecules (liquid or gas) with a change in their heat content.  This is an important heat transfer mode between fluids and solids, or within fluids.
Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves through a gas or vacuum.  Heat transfer by this mode therefore requires a line of sight connection between the surfaces involved.  All objects above absolute zero radiate heat energy; it is the net radiative heat transfer that is the heat transfer of interest.  Radiation is mostly of importance for heat transfer between solids and within highly porous solids, but radiation between high-temperature gases is occasionally of practical importance.
State change, sometimes called phase change, occurs at a constant temperature but still entails the movement of energy.  For example, evaporation absorbs energy and condensation releases energy.  This  energy is sometimes called latent heat.
The mode of heat transfer often changes during the process of heat flow through and within building systems.  For example, the sun transmits heat by radiation to the earth, where it can be absorbed, for example, by a brick wall.  The heat is then transferred by conduction through the brick and transferred to the indoor air by convection and to the indoor surfaces by radiation.

 

Figure 2: Convection and radiation

Insulation

All materials and layers in a building assembly have some resistance to heat flow.  However, some materials with a k-value lower than about 0.05 to 0.07 W / m ∙ K are deliberately used in building assemblies for their ability to retard the flow of heat.  These building products are called thermal insulations.  Insulations are usually solid materials (so-called body insulation), but radiant barriers that control only radiation heat transfer across air spaces are also available.
Since conduction is a major mode of heat transfer and still air is a low-cost insulator, insulation products tend to be low-density materials (i.e., porous materials with a large proportion of voids filled with air) and / or made of low-conductivity elements.  For example, glass of 2500 kg/m³ density and 1.0 W/ m ∙ K thermal conductivity is spun into fibers and formed into a batt of about 16 kg/m³ density and 0.043 W/ m ∙ K thermal conductivity. Fiberglass batt insulation is widely used as insulation despite the high conductivity of glass because of the very high percentage of pores filled with air.  This type of thermal insulation is approximately 99.4% air.
Foam plastic insulations have a lower percentage of air voids than glass fiber batts, but are made of lower conductivity plastic material. Soft wood of 500 kg / m³ density and 0.11 W/ m ∙ K thermal conductivity is produced to produce cellulose insulation of 60 kg / m³ density and 0.042 W/ m ∙ K thermal conductivity.
Most materials with high strength have relatively high density, and the strength of most building materials (e.g., concrete, wood, plastic) drops along with drops in their density.  Hence, the need for low density (or more accurately, high porosity) reduces the structural capacity of most insulation.  Accordingly, low-density insulation layers—such as glass fiber batt, and foamed plastics—are used to control heat flow in most modern building enclosures, while high-density, high-strength, high-conductivity materials such as steel studs, and concrete are used to support structural loads.  In the past, building materials such as adobe, log, and low-density brick were used in a manner that combined both moderate insulating and acceptable load-bearing functions. Buildings constructed of these materials had thick walls, both to provide a reasonable level of resistance to heat flow and to provide sufficient strength.
Within porous insulations like fibers and foams, all three modes of heat transfer actually occur simultaneously. At low densities, the effective conductivity is high since convection and radiation can move heat through the relatively open space. At high densities, convection and radiation are suppressed, but conduction through the increasing proportion of solid material becomes important.  Therefore, an optimum density can be chosen: one that varies with the type of material. For glass fiber A (a very fine glass fiber), the optimum density is about 2 pounds per cubic foot (30 kg/m³).  However, since the cost increases as more material is used, the density of glass fiber batt is more commonly less than 1 pcf (15 kg/m³).  If higher strength is required (as it is for low slope roof, curtainwall, and exterior basement applications), higher density fibrous products of 3 to 8 pcf (50 to 125 kg/m³ density) are available. Foam plastic insulations provide better R-value if higher strengths are needed. For example, extruded polystyrene with a density of only 2 pounds per cubic foot can easily resist pressures of 10 psi (or 1440 psf).
The wide range of values for thermal conductivity, and the inverse relationship of strength to thermal resistance, may be appreciated from the thickness required to achieve a certain level of thermal resistance.  Figure 3 is a plot of the thickness of various building materials required to achieve a thermal resistance of RSI3.5 (R20).
Rockwool fiber is thicker than glass (since the spun rock contains more impurities than glass), and hence conduction plays a larger role at lower densities.  Rockwool products therefore tend to use higher densities to achieve the same thermal performance as spun glass.  This extra density provides these products with greater strength and more resistance to convection and radiation effects.  Even though more material is used for the same thermal resistance, rockwool products compete in applications that require these properties.

 

Figure 3: Comparison of the thickness of various materials required to achieve R20 (RSI3.5).

Thermal Bridging

Heat flow deviates from one-dimensional at corners, parapets, intersections between different assemblies, etc.  When heat flows at a much higher rate through one part of an assembly than another, the term thermal bridge is used to reflect the fact that the heat has bridged over / around the thermal insulation.  Thermal bridges become important when:

• they cause cold spots within an assembly that might cause performance (e.g., surface condensation), durability or comfort problems
• they are either large enough or intense enough (highly conductive) that they affect the total heat loss through the enclosure

Thermal bridging can severely compromise thermal control and comfort in some building types. Heat flow through steel stud walls and metal curtainwalls is dominated by heat flow through the metal components.  Failure to break these thermal bridges can reduce the R-value of the insulating components (the insulated glazing unit or batt insulation respectively) by 50 to 80%.  Filling the voids in concrete block masonry with insulation is not very effective: adding R15 insulation to a 12” block with increase the R-value of the wall by about R2. Wood framed walls are not as badly affected, but reductions of 10 to 20% are common. A separate BSD discusses thermal bridging in more detail.

Figure 4: Best Case R-values for Walls with no extra framing for windows, floors or partitions.

 

Figure 5: Solving thermal bridging through studs by using insulating sheathing.

Heat Loss to the Ground

The ground temperature under and next to a building is generally very close to the annual average temperature. This means that the temperature difference between the inside of most buildings and the ground is not that large, although it is much steadier.  Hence, less insulation is needed to control heat flow to or from the ground. Nevertheless, some insulation is still required in many climates zones (DOE Zones 3 and higher). In many cases, heat flow control for slabs, crawlspaces, and basements is limited by that needed for control of moisture and comfort problems, not energy. 

 

 

Figure 6: Temperature profile through the ground over the year in a cold climate location.

Air Leakage

If cold air leaks out of the building during cold weather, it is of course replaced with cold air. This cold air must be heated up to make it comfortable.  In warm weather leaking air is replaced with hot air that needs to be cooled and dehumidified. The energy impact of air leakage is significant and must be considered since it is often an important heat loss/gain component of modern buildings. For example, air leakage can account for 30% of the thermal flow across the enclosure in a well-insulated modern home.
The use of a complete air barrier system is required to prevent unintentional air leakage. Several BSD’s and Guides address this critical issue.
Airflow can reduce or bypass thermal insulation in other ways than by just flowing across the enclosure.
Convective loops can form within highly air permeable insulation (low-density fibrous insulations) or small gaps around insulation (possible with rigid board insulation or improperly installed batts. 

 

Figure 7:  Convective air loops that reduce thermal control of insulation.

 

Figure 8: Wind-washing, the flow of wind through air permeable insulations,
can reduce the thermal performance of insulations.

Intentional ventilation has the same energy penalty as the same quantity of unintentional air leakage. Hence, the amount of ventilation should be no more than needed (see ASHRAE standards for guidance).  In extreme climates, much of the energy required to heat/cool ventilation air can be recovered in heat recovery ventilator. Energy recovery ventilators also reduce the impact of humidity.

Solar Radiation Through Windows

Solar gain through windows exposed to either the direct sun, or reflected sun (reflected off the particles in the sky, creating diffuse radiation, or reflected off a surface) can dramatically affect the heat flow in a building.  Hence, the building energy flows must account for the solar gain through windows.  This amount of heat can dominate the performance of a modern building with relatively high window coverage (i.e., above 20 to 30% window to wall ratio).
The Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) is the window property used to rate the amount of energy allowed through windows. The SHGC is the fraction of incident solar radiation that passes through a window and becomes heat inside the building. For example, if the SHGC of a glazing unit is 0.50, and the sun is shining on the window with an intensity of 500 W/m², 250 W/m² will enter the building.
The lower the SHGC, the less solar heat that the window transmits through and the greater its shading ability. In general, south-facing windows in houses designed for passive solar heating (with a roof overhang to shade them in the summer) should have windows with a high SHGC to allow in beneficial solar heat gain in the winter. East or West facing windows that receive large amounts of undesirable sun in mornings and afternoons, and windows in houses in hot climates, should have a low SHGC.
Solutions to control this form of thermal control include reduced window area, projecting horizontal shading (most effective on the south), exterior operable vertical shade, and solar control coatings on windows. Interior shades have a relatively small impact, but have the important role of controlling glare and providing privacy.
Passive solar heating design is used to capture the heat of the sun in a beneficial manner—this requires that most of the windows face south, and that window area be limited to collect only as much energy as needed for heating and to warm storage. Modern passive buildings have better control of the thermal losses in cold weather and hence have almost normal ratios of window to wall area.

Interior Heat Gains

In a well-insulated building, the interior heat generated by occupants and activities can be quite important. In cold weather, this interior heat offsets the heat required to warm the space. In warm climates this heat adds to the cooling load.  In smaller buildings (or buildings with a large enclosure surface area to interior floor area ratio) such as housing, interior heat gains do not play a large role in most cases.  Only in very well insulated homes or mild heating weather (i.e., around 10 ºC or 50 ºF) do interior heat gains form a significant proportion of heat flows in a small building.
Large boxy buildings (that is, those with a small ratio of enclosure surface area to floor area) are often dominated by internal heat gain.  Thermal flow in properly insulated commercial office buildings generally is dominated by heat gain and loss through windows at the perimeter (that is, within about 30 feet of the perimeter) and by interior heat gains in the core.  By employing moderate areas of high performance (U<0.3 or 1.25 W/m²ºC) windows in a well insulated opaque enclosure, many commercial buildings will require little or no heating in below freezing weather when occupied.

Conclusions

This is just a summary introduction to the large topic of thermal control. Various Building Science Digests discuss specific topics of insulation, air barriers, ventilation, passive solar design, glazing, and thermal bridging. Despite the many specific situations that will arise in the building industry, it can be generally concluded that the control of heat flow in buildings requires insulation layers penetrated with few thermal bridges, an effective air barrier system, good control of solar radiation, and management of interior heat generation.

Ice Dams

The Problem

The more snowfall, the more likely the problem. If the climate is very cold, there are less likely to be problems.  Hence, ski resorts tend to be perfect areas for ice dams.
Simply put, ice damns are ridges of ice and icicles caused by meltwater from further up the roof re-freezing lower on the roof. The “dam” created by the ridge of ice along the eaves can trap further meltwater and result in significant leakage under and through the roofing, especially shingles and metal roofing. This leakage can cause damage to the sheathing, the roof structure, or the ceiling and walls below. Large icicles along the eaves can become a danger to people below if they fall.

 

Figure 1: Ice dam at a typical roof.

The Causes

The fundamental causes of ice dams are well understood. If part of a roof becomes warm enough to melt snow that is lying on the roof, the snow will melt, and water will run down a sloped roof. If the water subsequently encounters a cold surface, the water will revert to ice. Therefore it can be said that the cause of ice dams is a difference in temperature on the roof surface where the upper part of the roof is warmer than the lower.

Photograph 1: An ice dam; note the snow melting on the slope above the ice dam.

Photograph 2: Not just a problem for sloped roofs.

Most explanations of why ice dams form are actually explanations of why the roof becomes warmer in one spot than another spot lower down. There are several reasons, and most can be a particular cause in a particular case. Often a combination of mechanisms causes the differential temperature.
The most common causes, in no particular order, are:

• insufficient insulation or thermal bridging;
• air leaking into the space below the roof membrane;
• a source of heat in roof such as a poorly insulated duct, hot-water piping, etc.;
• a difference in snow thickness, especially when combined with solar radiation.

The cause and some solutions to each will be examined below.

Cause: Insufficient Insulation

If there is insufficient insulation between heated space and the roof sheathing, significant amounts of heat can flow to the underside of the sheathing.  Snow also insulates the roof membrane, increasing its temperature. This scenario will raise the temperature of the roof-snow interface above the melting point even at cold outdoor temperatures. The result is many hours of snow melting with sufficiently low temperatures to ensure rapid freezing (Figure 2).

  Figure 2: The process of ice dam formation caused by poor insulation.

The greater the snow depth on a roof (which is a function of the snowfall, the slope and friction of the roof, and the weather elements that encourage evaporation), the more its insulating effect on the roof membrane. For the same amount of insulation on the inside, an increase in snow depth will increase the temperature at the interface between the snow and the roof. Once enough snow has been accumulated, melting will begin. Once the meltwater reaches the eaves, the heat loss from the underside of the eaves and the fascia ensures that the water refreezes. Even when enough insulation is specified, problems arise where heat flow through large framing members and compressed insulation at truss heels results in lower installed R-values.

Solution: Better Insulation / Ventilation

The more insulation provided on the interior the more unlikely it is that enough snow will collect to cause melting. How much insulation is enough? The amount depends on the snowfall and the climate of course, but it is recommended that a minimum of R-30 should be provided below ventilated attic roof membranes, R-35 below ventilated cathedral ceilings, and R-40 below unventilated cathedral ceilings. These insulation levels should be increased for very cold climates (DOE Zone 6 or higher).
Another way to keep the sheathing cold is to ventilate with outdoor air (Figure 3). Although ventilation will remove some of the heat that passes through the ceiling, very low levels of insulation and thermal bridging cannot practically be offset by ventilation. Ventilation is best used as a supplement to good insulation as ventilation can be used to remove the little heat that flows through a well insulated roof.

Figure 3: Solutions to poor insulation.

Better framing practises and high-heel trusses can be used to reduce the likelihood of local areas of poor thermal performance. Alternatively, in cathedral ceilings for example, adding exterior rigid insulation to the framing members (but below any ventilation) can be used to blunt thermal bridges and increase the total thermal insulation level. For example, 2x8 rafters filled with cellulose insulation (>R-30) plus 50 mm (2”) of extruded polystyrene insulation in an unvented cathedral ceiling will meet the R-40 minimum recommendation and avoid thermal bridges at the rafters.

Cause: Air Leakage

Warm air leaking through the ceiling plane or air from pressurised space-conditioning ducts bypasses the thermal insulation installed and will directly increase the temperature of an attic space or the underside of the membrane.
Not only does air leakage into the roof cause warming and melting of snow, in colder weather it often causes condensation on the underside of the roof sheathing. The two processes combined can cause serious wetting and decay of the sheathing and roof structure as well as leakage into the space below (Figure 4).
Plumbing stacks, recessed lights, chimneys, electrical service penetrations in partition walls, and attic hatches all can on their own, or in combination, allow sufficient air leakage into the ceiling space (cathedral or attic) to cause serious condensation and ice damming problems (Photograph 3).

 

Photograph 3: Ceiling penetrations in a cathedral ceiling.

Air leakage from ducts placed in the attic (a bad idea for many reasons) can also acts as a significant heat and moisture source and cause both condensation and snow melting.

Figure 4: Ice dam formation process caused by air leakage.

Solution: Air Sealing

Although the solution is rather simple to state, it is quite difficult to achieve in practice. Great care must be taken to seal the ceiling air barrier (often the polyethylene vapor barrier is used as an air barrier or the drywall; see Photograph 4). Table 1 provides a list of air leakage locations and means to ensure they are sealed.
Caulking can be used around small openings and gaps, but expanding polyurethane or acrylic foam should be used around openings more than about 1” (see Photograph 5). For large openings, drywall can be used as the air barrier with taped or caulked joints used to complete the seal. Great care and attention to detail is essentially the only solution to air leakage, although expensive answers such as spraying the entire ceiling with expanding foam (NOT dense-pack cellulose, or blown in batts) can provide the required airtightness quite easily.

 

Photograph 4: Polyethylene sheet sealed as air barrier around bathroom fan housing.

Photograph 5: Air-sealing with expanding polyurethane foam – much easier to do before the interior finishes are installed.

Adding ventilation openings is likely to increase the problem by allowing the leaking air more easy access to the outdoors. In some cases, adding a very large amount of ventilation can help by diluting the moisture content of the leaking air and reducing its temperature. However, it is very difficult and bad practise to ventilate away gross air leakage. Once the majority of the air leaks have been sealed, ventilation may be beneficial.

Table 1. Locations of Attic Air Leaks and Sealing Methods 

Problem: Heat Sources in Roof Space

If ductwork, hot-water piping, or any other source of heat is located above the majority of the ceiling insulation, it can act as a heat source.

Solution: Insulate and Remove

Locating heat sources above the insulation is bad practise, since it causes increased heat loss and energy consumption. If the sources are already there, adding a significant amount of insulation and an airtight blanket around them will reduce the source of heat dramatically. (Note: the addition of foil-faced R-6 insulation is NOT sufficient ductwork insulation in cold climates). As always, ventilation can be used to remove any small amount of residual heat that is not blocked by the insulation.

Cause: Snow Thickness Variation

Wind speeds are often higher near ridge lines and scour snow from the roof. Snow catchers at the base of metal roofs hold back sliding snow near the eaves. Exposed shingles or metal can easily be heated to 70 F (40 C) above ambient air temperature and cause melting of the snow immediately next to the exposed roofing.  Water will run down the roof and can freeze at the eave, which is cooled from the underside (Figure 5). If the temperature is cold enough and the snowcover thin enough the meltwater may form a relatively harmless thin sheet of ice below the snow. In other situations, large ice dams and icicles can form.

 

Figure 5: Ice dam formation process due to uneven snow thickness.

Solution: Ventilation, Insulation, and Waterproofing

Keeping the underside of the roof sheathing close to the exterior temperature is the best solution. This can be achieved with good ventilation and good insulation acting in concert. Even if all good design practises are followed this process can still occur. For this reason it is recommended that a waterproof membrane (preferably self-sealing to accommodate roofing nails) be provided. This membrane should come up the roof high enough to resist a 6 to 8” height of water above the edge of the wall insulation below (Figure 6). Hence, steep pitched roofs will require narrower strips of this membrane than shallow roofs.

Conclusions

Differential temperatures below the roofing membrane cause ice dams. There are several causes of this temperature difference – poor insulation levels, air leakage into the roof, heat sources in the attic, and solar heating of bare roofing. There are primarily two problems caused by ice dams – water leakage and dangerous ice conditions. Some solutions solve one of these problems and some solve both.
There are three broad strategies that can be used:

1. Stop excessive heat from flowing to the underside of roof.
2. Remove the excessive heat by ventilation.
3. Provide a waterproof roof membrane that will not leak under standing water and protect pedestrians from falling ice.

In many cases a combination of strategies is used. 

 Figure 6: Waterproof “eaves-starter” or “peel and stick.”

 

Photograph 6: Self-adhering membrane over the entire roof surface – an appropriate solution in some climates.

Blunting thermal bridges by providing full depth insulation and exterior insulation over the framing is the solution to poor insulation levels. The most common, most damaging, and often the most obvious problem to solve is excessive air leakage. Air sealing requires care and attention to detail during design and construction. Removing ducts and pipes from the attic or at least insulating them well can control this source of accidental heat.
Ventilation removes heat from under the roof membrane. Since ventilation cannot remove a lot of heat, it can usually only be used once the sources of heat have been removed or reduced drastically. If one can be sure of removing air leaks and thermal bridges, ventilation may be unnecessary.
Finally, since the sun can cause some melting on exposed upper portions of a roof, one typically needs to provide a layer of self-sealing waterproofing at the eaves of all sloped roofs.  This provides some back-up protection in the event that other strategies are not perfectly implemented.

Understanding Basements

We have attended green build conferences and keeping water out of basements is a huge issue. Green building concepts lead to higher quality structures and better in air quality. This article is a great informative article on how to best protect basements from moisture and mold. Typical construction leads to moisture issues.  -LDG

Keeping the Groundwater and Contaminants Out

 

 By Joseph Lstiburek 

The fundamentals of groundwater control date back to the time of the Romans:  drain the site and drain the ground. Today that means collecting the run off from roofs and building surfaces using gutters and draining the water away from foundation perimeters. Roof and façade water should not saturate the ground beside foundations. Grade should slope away from building perimeters and an impermeable layer should cover the ground adjacent to buildings (Figure 2).

Figure 1:  Expansion of Conditioned Space

Figure 2:  Traditional Approach to Basement Water Control

A free draining layer of backfill material or some other provision for drainage such as a drainage board or drainage mat should be used to direct penetrating groundwater downward to a perimeter drain. The perimeter drain should be located exterior to the foundation and wrapped completely in a geotextile (“filter fabric”). A crushed stone drainage layer under the basement slab should be connected through the footings to the perimeter drain to provide drainage redundancy and to provide a temporary reservoir for high groundwater loading during downpours if sump pumps fail during electrical outages (if gravity drainage to daylight is not possible).
Groundwater exists in more than the free-flowing liquid state. Water from wet soil can also wick (capillary flow) and move by diffusion through the soil and the materials used to make basements. Therefore the basement wall should be damp-proofed and vapor-proofed on the exterior and a capillary break installed over the top of the footing to control “rising damp.” Damp-proofing and vapor-proofing in these locations is often provided by a fluid applied coating of bitumen. In the past, capillary breaks over footings were not common. They were not needed when basement perimeter walls were uninsulated and unfinished on the interior, because these conditions permitted inward drying of the migrating moisture. For finished basements they are an important control mechanism.  Without them, moisture constantly migrates through the foundation, and then into the interior insulation layer and interior gypsum board lining.
A capillary break and vapor barrier should be located under concrete basement floor slabs.  Crushed stone or coarse gravel acts as an effective capillary break and sheet polyethylene in direct contract with a concrete floor slab acts as an effective vapor barrier. The concrete slab should be sealed to the perimeter basement wall with sealant (the concrete slab becomes the “air barrier” that controls the flow of soil gas into the basement).
The crushed stone drainage layer under the basement concrete slab should be vented to the atmosphere to control soil gas (Figure 3). Atmospheric air pressure changes are on the order of several hundred Pascal’s (an inch of water column) so that the soil gas vent stack is in essence a “pressure relief vent” or “soil gas bypass” to the atmosphere. Perforated pipe should be attached to the vent stack to extend the pressure field under the slab to the foundation perimeter and to the drainage layer outside the walls. Pipe connections through the footing extend the pressure field further to the exterior perimeter drain (as well as providing drainage redundancy as previously noted).

Figure 3:  Basement Soil Gas Control

• Sub-slab pressure field coupled to the atmosphere to relieve pressure differences.
• Avoid offsets or elbows in vent stack to maximize air flow.

The traditional approach to basement water control has been to place the barrier and control layers on the outside and then allow drying to the inside. Drainage, damp-proofing or water-proofing and vapor control layers have historically been located on the outside of basement perimeter walls and crushed stone layers and plastic vapor barriers have been located under concrete slabs. The operative principle has been to keep the liquid, vapor, and capillary water out of the structure and locate vapor barriers on the outside – and allow inward drying to the basement space where moisture can be removed by ventilation or dehumidification.
The approach to basement soil gas control should be to allow pressure relief by creating pressure fields under and around basement foundations that are coupled to the atmosphere – intercepting the soil gas before it can enter the structure and providing a bypass or a pathway away from the conditioned space.

Insulating Basements

Comfort and energy costs have lead to the necessity to insulate basements. Heat loss from basements accounts for a significant portion of the total space-conditioning load – upwards of 20 percent (Timusk, 1981). In many jurisdictions, basement insulation is a building code requirement and the trend to more basement insulation is expected to accelerate. Additionally, many homeowners with homes with basements finish the basement area for additional living space.  When they do, they typically insulate the perimeter walls.  Homes with basements often end up with basement walls that are finished and insulated.
Four generic insulation approaches are possible:  insulate on the inside, the outside, the middle or both sides (Figure 4). The most logical location from the building physics perspective is to locate the insulation on the outside as in a commercial institutional wall assembly. By locating the insulation layer outward of the structure and outward of the water control layers the foundation is kept at a constant temperature and the insulation system does not interfere with the inward drying of the assembly. Exterior basement insulation (Photograph 1) is completely compatible with the traditional approach for foundation water control (described above).

Figure 4:  Generic Insulation Approaches

• Interior insulation most common, least expensive, has most moisture problems.
• Exterior insulation best location from physics perspective, has practical problems with protection, thermal bridging and insects.
• Insulation in middle is most expensive approach, has fewest moisture and insect problems, but is the most difficult to construct.
• Insulation on both sides has similar problems to the exterior insulation approach with the additional cost of the interior layer.

Unfortunately, exterior basement insulation can have significant application problems that often make it impractical to employ. The first is the difficulty in protecting the insulation layer during the construction process and subsequently during its useful service life. The cost of a protection layer often is more expensive than the insulation itself. The second is insect control – particularly in the south. Exterior insulation can be an “insect interstate” that provides a direct pathway into the structure. Poisoning the insulation or the soil is often the only viable approach with exterior insulation as barriers (“termite shields”) have proven problematic (Lstiburek, 2004). Third is the problem of thermal bridging when brick veneers are used (Figure 5). There is no known practical cost effective solution to the thermal bridging brick veneer problem when exterior basement insulation is used in residential basements.*  The heat loss is so severe as to almost negate the insulation layer (Timusk, 1981).

Figure 5:  Brick Veneer Thermal Bridge

• Thermal bridge associated with brick veneer reduces effectiveness of the insulation at top of wall.

These factors have lead to looking at alternative approaches to basement insulation – primarily locating insulation layers on the interior. Unfortunately, locating insulation layers on the interior often conflicts with the traditional approach of foundation water control – namely inward drying. Constructing frame walls, insulating the resulting cavity and covering with an interior plastic vapor barrier is common (Photograph 2) and often leads to odor, mold, decay and corrosion problems (Fugler, 2002;  Ellringer, 2002). Also common, and prone to similar problems, is the use of “blanket insulation” often derisively referred to as “the diaper” for the odor problems associated with the approach (Photograph 3).
* The author has tried over 25 years everything from aerated autoclaved concrete in the first course of brick, to supporting the brick veneer on a steel shelf angle, to a separate foundation supporting only the brick veneer, to high density-high compressive strength “highway” foam.  He has given up and patiently waits for someone clever to solve the problem in such a simple and elegant manner as to be joyously embarrassing to the author.

Photograph 1:  Exterior Basement Insulation

• Ideal location from the physics perspective.
• Practical problems with protection, insect control and thermal bridging of brick veneers.

Photograph 2:  Interior Frame Wall With Plastic Vapor Barrier

• Plastic vapor barrier prevents inward drying.
• Common outcome are odor, mold, decay and corrosion problems.

Photograph 3:  “Blanket Insulation”—a.k.a. "the diaper"

• Plastic film on interior of blanket insulation prevents inward drying.

Problems that interior insulation systems have to overcome are numerous:

• Groundwater entry (Figure 6)
• Moisture of construction (Figure 7)
• Capillary rise through footing (Figure 8)
• Condensation from interior air leakage (Figure 9)

 

Figure 6:  Groundwater Entry

• Interior insulation layer is typically water sensitive and prevents inward drying.

Figure 7:  Moisture of Construction

• Interior insulation layer is typically water sensitive and prevents inward drying.
• Several thousand pounds of water in freshly placed concrete attempts to dry inward.

Figure 8: Capillary Rise Through Footing

• Interior insulation layer is typically water sensitive and prevents inward drying.

Figure 9:  Condensation From Interior Air Leakage

• Interior insulation layer is typically not airtight and does not prevent interior air from condensing on concrete foundation wall.
• Soil gas often enters assembly at concrete slab-perimeter wall interface leading to condensation.

Most interior insulation systems are constructed with moisture sensitive materials (i.e. fiberglass batts or blankets) and are unable to tolerate even minor groundwater leakage, therefore requiring builders to be “perfect” in controlling groundwater – an impossible requirement. These systems also can prevent inward drying (i.e. when they are covered with plastic vapor barriers). This is an issue with moisture of construction, capillary rise and ground water leakage.
Simply leaving off plastic or other low permeance vapor barriers  will not avoid problems, because interior water vapor will migrate outward. Then it will condense on the interior surface of the foundation wall providing moisture for mold growth and other problems.
An even moisture problem can be created by air leakage from the interior. As most interior insulation systems are not airtight they allow interior air to access the interior surfaces of the perimeter concrete foundation.
The structural elements of below grade walls are cold (concrete is in direct contact with the ground) – especially when insulated on the interior. The main problem with below grade walls comes during the summer when warm moist air comes in contact with basement cold surfaces that are below the dewpoint of the interior air. Of particular concern are rim joist areas – which are cold not only during the summer but also during the winter (Goldberg & Huelman, 2000).
Basement walls should be insulated with non-water sensitive insulation that prevents interior air from contacting cold basement surfaces – the concrete structural elements and the rim joist framing. The best insulations to use are foam based and should allow the foundation wall assembly to dry inwards. The foam insulation layer should generally be vapor semi impermeable (greater than 0.1 perm), vapor semi permeable (greater than 1.0 perm) or vapor permeable (greater than 10 perm) (Lstiburek, 2004). The greater the permeance the greater the inward drying and therefore the lower the risk of excessive moisture accumulation. However, in cold climates or buildings with high interior relative humidity during cold weather, the upper portion of a basement wall may become cold enough that a vapour permeable insulation will allow a damaging amount of outward diffusion during cold weather. A semi-permeable vapour retarder or foam or a supplemental layer exterior insulation can be used in these situations.
In all cases, a capillary break should be installed on the top of the footing between the footing and the perimeter foundation wall to control “rising damp.” No interior vapor barriers should be installed in order to permit inward drying.
Up to two inches of unfaced extruded polystyrene (R-10), four inches of unfaced expanded polystyrene (R-15), three inches of closed cell medium density spray polyurethane foam (R-18) and ten inches of open cell low density spray foam (R-35) meet these permeability requirements.
The most cost effective approach involves a combination of rigid insulation and an insulated frame wall assembly (Photograph 4, Figure 10 and Figure 11). Spray foam – either closed cell or open cell – provides the least risky interior insulation assemblies from the perspective of installation simplicity, water insensitivity and ease of drying (Figure 12).

Photograph 4:  Rigid Insulation/Frame Wall Under Construction

• Rigid insulation continuous behind wood frame wall.
• Rigid insulation is vapor semi-impermeable or vapor semi-permeable (foil facing or plastic facing not present).
• Wood frame wall cavity to be insulated with unfaced fiberglass or damp spray cellulose.
• No interior vapor barrier installed.

Figure 10:  Rigid Insulation/Frame Wall

• Cold concrete foundation wall must be protected from interior moisture-laden air in summer and winter.
• Rigid insulation continuous behind wood frame wall.
• Rigid insulation is vapor semi-impermeable or vapor semi-permeable (foil facing or plastic facing not present).
• Wood frame wall cavity to be insulated with unfaced fiberglass or damp spray cellulose.
• No interior vapor barrier installed.

Figure 11:  Rigid Insulation Wraps Exposed Concrete

• Cold concrete foundation wall must be protected from interior moisture-laden air in summer and winter.
• Rim joist assembly must be insulated with air impermeable insulation.
• Rigid insulation completely wraps exposed concrete preventing interior air from contacting potential concrete condensing surface.
• Rigid insulation is vapor semi-impermeable or vapor semi-permeable (foil facing or plastic facing not present).

Figure 12:  Interior Spray Foam

• Least risky interior insulation approach.
• Cold concrete foundation wall must be protected from interior moisture-laden air in summer and winter.
• Rim joist assembly must be insulated with air impermeable insulation.
• Interior air cannot access concrete condensing surface or rim joist condensing surface due to spray foam layer.
• Spray foam insulation layer is vapor semi-permeable permitting inward drying.
• Spray foam must be covered with fire/ignition barrier.

Basement floor slabs are best insulated underneath with rigid insulation: both extruded or expanded polystyrene have been widely used with success. The radiant barrier bubble insulations on the market are not recommended as they do not provide sufficient insulation or value. Although the energy savings of sub-slab insulation are not as significant as basement wall insulation, such insulation is critical for radiantly heated basement slabs and do offer a significant improvement in comfort and moisture damage resistance (including against summertime condensation).
A sheet polyethylene vapor barrier should be located over the rigid insulation and in direct contact with the concrete slab.  A sand layer should never be installed between the sheet polyethylene vapor barrier and the concrete slab. Sand layers located between the slab and the vapor barrier can become saturated with water, which are then unable to dry downwards through the vapor barrier. In this scenario, drying can only occur upward through the slab is possible which typically results in damaged interior floor finishes (Lstiburek, 2002).
Impermeable interior floor finishes such as vinyl floor coverings should also be avoided – as should impermeable interior basement wall finishes such as oil (alkyd) paints and vinyl wall coverings. These impermeable layers inhibit inward drying and typically lead to mold growth and other moisture problems.
The floor finishes and interior finishes on the lower parts of basement walls (interior and enclosure walls) should be chosen with a consideration for the possibility of flooding from leaky appliances, failed plumbing, overflowing sinks, or exterior surface flooding.

Conclusions

Liquid and capillary water should be kept out of the basement assembly using surface drainage, below grade drainage layers, perimeter drains, and capillary breaks. Vapor barriers should be located on the exterior of basement assemblies allowing inward drying to the basement space where moisture can be removed by ventilation or dehumidification.
Soil gas should be controlled by locating pressure fields under and around basement foundations that are coupled to the atmosphere – intercepting the soil gas before it can enter the structure and providing a bypass or a pathway away from the conditioned space.
If basement wall systems are designed and constructed to dry to the interior – regardless of where insulation layers are located – interior vapor barriers must be avoided. This precludes interior polyethylene vapor barriers installed over interior frame wall assemblies or any impermeable interior wall finish such as vinyl wall coverings or oil/alkyd/epoxy paint systems.
If an interior insulation layer is used the indoor air should be prevented from reaching the concrete structural wall assembly or rim joist assembly (unless insulated on the exterior) in any significant volume. Rigid foam systems or spray-applied foams are recommended for this purpose, because they allow drying, are not sensitive to moisture damage, and do not support mold growth – essential characteristics for all materials which contact the basement wall and basement floor slab.

Courtesy of: buildingscience.com